Definition and Examples of Mineralised Tissues
- Mineralised tissues incorporate minerals into soft matrices
- Examples include bone, mollusc shells, deep sea sponge, Euplectella species, radiolarians, diatoms, antler bone, tendon, cartilage, tooth enamel, and dentin
- These tissues have evolved over millions of years to enhance their mechanical capabilities
- Mineralised tissues inspire miniaturization, adaptability, and multifunctionality
- Natural materials have a limited number of components, while engineering applications can use a larger variety of material chemistries

Properties and Structures of Mineralised Tissues
- Mineralised tissues combine stiffness, low weight, strength, and toughness
- Common minerals found in these tissues are calcium carbonate and hydroxyapatite
- Mineralised tissues are 1,000 to 10,000 times tougher than the minerals they contain
- The organised layering of the tissue contributes to its underlying strength
- Hierarchical structures distribute damage and resist cracking
- Nacre has several hierarchical structural levels, including macroscale, microscale, and nanoscale
- Bone has a hierarchical structure formed by self-assembly, with collagen and hydroxyapatite as its main components

Evolution and Research of Mineralised Tissues
- The evolution of mineralised tissues has been studied for over a century
- Teeth evolved from the dermal skeleton and were made from dentin, basal bone, and enameloid
- Genetic analysis of agnathans is expected to provide more insight into the evolution of mineralised tissues
- Mechanical and imaging techniques are used to characterize mineralised tissues

Formation and Interface of Mineralised Tissues
- Understanding the formation of biological tissues is necessary for artificial reconstruction
- Mechanisms of mineralization in mollusc shells, bone, and sea urchin are still being determined
- The mineral-protein interface plays a role in the toughening properties of mineralised tissues
- Surface topology affects tablet locking and hardening in mineralised tissues

Applications and Biomimetic Approaches of Mineralised Tissues
- Mineralised tissues can be involved in pathological processes, such as atherosclerotic plaques and kidney stones
- Further studies on mineralised tissues can help understand causes and cures of these conditions
- Natural structural materials exhibit superior mechanical properties, inspiring the development of bioinspired materials
- Biomimetic mineralization is effective for building synthetic materials with superior mechanical properties
- Techniques such as ice templation/freeze casting, additive manufacturing, layer-by-layer deposition, thin film deposition, and self-assembly are used to mimic the hierarchical structures of mineralised tissues.