Definition, History, and Types of Patents
- A patent is a type of intellectual property that grants the legal right to exclude others from using, making, or selling an invention.
- The granting procedure, requirements, and extent of exclusive rights vary between countries.
- The Venetian Patent Statute of 1474 is considered the first statutory patent system.
- The English patent system evolved and became the foundation for patent law in other countries.
- Patents can cover various types of inventions, such as biological, business methods, chemical, and software patents.
- Some jurisdictions use the term 'design patents' for industrial design rights.
- Plant breeders' rights may be referred to as 'plant patents' in certain countries.
- Utility models and Gebrauchsmuster may be called 'petty patents' or 'innovation patents.'
- The term 'utility patent' is used to distinguish the primary meaning of patents from other types.

Gender Gap in Patents and International Patent Systems
- Historically, women in the US were unable to obtain patents due to legal restrictions.
- Efforts are being made to address the gender gap and promote inclusivity in the patent system.
- Patent systems vary between countries due to national laws and international agreements.
- The TRIPS Agreement ensures patents are available in WTO member states for any new, inventive, and industrially applicable invention.
- The term of patent protection should be a minimum of twenty years according to TRIPS.
- Some countries have alternative forms of intellectual property protection, such as utility models with shorter monopoly periods.

Innovation Decline and Explanations
- Patent applications have been growing for most countries, but there have been jumps in activity due to changes in local laws.
- Technologically advanced countries like France, Italy, Japan, Spain, Sweden, and the UK have seen a decline in the total number of patent families filed since the 1970s-1980s.
- Increasing cost of research as lower-hanging fruits have been picked up.
- Decrease in productivity per researcher.
- Human civilization reaching the limits of the human brain.
- Rate of innovation proportional to the rate of population growth.
- Increasing fragmentation of patent encumbrance and patent litigations.

Rights, Limitations, and Challenges of Patents
- A patent provides the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing the patented invention.
- Improvements to existing inventions may still be covered by someone else's patent.
- Some countries have working provisions that require the invention to be exploited in the jurisdiction it covers.
- Third parties can challenge the validity of a patent through opposition proceedings or in court.
- Patent infringement occurs when a third party makes, uses, or sells a patented invention without authorization.
- Infringement is enforced on a national basis.
- Contributory infringement and literal infringement are forms of patent infringement.

Enforcement, Ownership, and Governing Laws
- Patents can only be enforced through civil lawsuits.
- Some countries have criminal penalties for patent infringement.
- Patent owners seek monetary compensation and injunctions against infringers.
- Natural persons and corporate entities may apply for a patent in most countries.
- Ownership of an invention may pass from the inventor to their employer in some European countries.
- Patents are governed by national laws and international treaties.
- Patents are granted by national or regional patent offices.
- Patent law is territorial, providing protection only in the country where the patent is granted.
- Patent licensing agreements grant rights to make, use, sell, or import the claimed invention.
- The TRIPS Agreement promotes global harmonization of patent laws.
- Compliance with the TRIPS agreement is important for admission to the WTO.